Role of antiviral therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis B or C virus in preventing the development of hepatocellular carcinoma
0
Abstract
Patients with chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection are at significant risk for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The most important risk factor associated with HCC is liver cirrhosis, which is again predominantly caused by chronic HBV or HCV infection. The most effective approach to avoid HCC development is to prevent HBV and HCV infection through vaccination. Indeed, HBV vaccine is the first vaccine demonstrated to prevent cancers. However, a vaccine for HCV is not available. Thus, the prevention of HCV-related HCC and to a large extent HBV-related HCC (among persons who are already chronically infected) will rely on antiviral therapy to prevent progressive liver disease. The evidence that these patients can effectively be protected against HCC risk by the treatment with antiviral therapy is rather controversial, due to the lack of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that are ideally needed to establish the effi cacy, but are logistically and ethically challenging. Although the strongest evidence to support that antiviral therapy can prevent HCC should be derived from RCTs with HCC as an endpoint, it should be emphasized that clinical trials showing the efficacy of antiviral therapy on virus suppression or eradication, and/or improvement in liver histology can be considered indirect evidence that antiviral therapy can prevent HCC because high virus levels (in the case of HBV infection) and cirrhosis (in both HBV and HCV infection) are the most important risk factors for HCC.
Keywords
Introduction
The World Health Organization estimates that over 350 million persons are infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and about 250 million people are chronically infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV).[1] This population is constantly exposed to an increased risk of developing cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), liver decompensation, and esophageal variceal bleeding, ultimately explaining why HBV and HCV infection are currently the leading causes of liver-related death and the main indication for liver transplantation in developed countries.[2] There is no clear evidence about the role of antiviral therapies in HCC prevention in patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB) and hepatitis C.[3]
Reanalysis of studies with antivirals suggested that virus-induced HCC was more likely to be prevented in younger patients with mild liver inflammation rather than in older patients with advanced liver fibrosis or cirrhosis, who in fact, were at higher risk of developing liver cancer.[4] In this review, we will address the possible role of antiviral therapy in reducing the risk of HCC in patients affected by HBV and HCV.
We reviewed in PubMed database reports published in English language up to January 2015, using the following keywords: "HCC", "hepatocellular carcinoma", "hepatitis B", "HBV", "hepatitis C", "HCV", "antiviral therapy", and "cirrhosis". We selected the pivotal randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and meta-analysis on this issue. In addition, a manual search for American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases and European Association for the Study of the Liver 2012-2014 conference abstracts were performed using the same search terms.
HBV
HBV is one of the most etiologic agent of HCC in the world, in particular, in areas prevalent for HBV infection such as Asia, Africa, Southern part of Eastern and Central Europe, and the Middle East.[5] A report published in 2006 showed that HBV infection accounted for about 60% of the total liver cancer occurrence in developing countries and about 23% in developed countries.[6]
There are viral and host factors that are associated with an increased risk of HCC among patients with HBV.[7] Although a majority of liver cancers develop from cirrhotic livers, a significant fraction of HBV-related HCCs occurs in a background of CHB in the absence of liver cirrhosis. The lower rate of underlying cirrhosis in HBV-related HCCs as compared to other etiologies argues for a more direct role of HBV in the oncogenetic process.[8]
The molecular and genetic features of HBV chronic infection involving cancer development could be summarized into (1) Pre-core and basal core promoter mutations, genotype B and C[9-13] and (2) integration of HBV DNA into the host genome and the expression of HBV proteins such as surface proteins and the X protein.[14-16]
Studies on the natural history of chronic HBV infection have shown that active HBV replication contributes to the development of acute hepatitis flare, hepatic decompensation, cirrhosis, and HCC.[17] A prospective cohort study with 11 years of follow-up observed that there was a significant increase in HCC-related mortality across viral load categories, with a relative risk (RR) for HCC mortality in the low viral load group of 1.7 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.5-5.7] when compared with 11.2 (3.6-35.0) in the high viral load group.[18] In the REVEAL-HBV study, serum HBV DNA levels, and HCC risk correlate in a linear relationship, independently of hepatitis B early antigen (HBeAg) status, serum alanine aminotransferase level, and the presence or absence of liver cirrhosis.[19] In addition to these viral factors, older age, male gender, heavy alcohol consumption, and exposure to carcinogens such as aflatoxin B, a family history of HCC, and more recently, the elevated levels of quantitative hepatitis B surface antigen, as well as metabolic syndrome, associated with obesity and diabetes mellitus have been established as the risk factors for HBV-related HCC.[17,20-22]
The primary prevention of HBV-related HCC concerns in the prevention of the population exposure to HBV, treatment of HBV infection itself, elimination of those factors which contribute to the progression of liver disease and risk scores have also been established to estimate the risk of developing HCC in < 10 years after presentation. Such scores based on age, gender, HBV DNA levels, core promoter mutations, and cirrhosis, can be used to identify high-risk patients.[23-25] However, these models were found lacking accuracy for the prediction of HCC in Caucasian patients, for whom different models are, therefore, deemed necessary.[26] The implementation of universal hepatitis B vaccination program has reduced the incidence rates of childhood HCC in several countries including Taiwan.[11] Prompt treatment is the only strategy to prevent end-stage liver disease, incidence, and mortality for HCC in unvaccinated adults with chronic HBV infection.
Current therapeutic options for patients with CHB infection are treatment with interferon-alpha (IFN-α), pegylated interferon-alpha (Peg-IFN-α), lamivudine, adefovir, entecavir, telbivudine, and tenofovir. IFN-α has antiviral, immunomodulatory and perhaps antitumoral activities. It has been used in the treatment of CHB for decades and beneficial effects, including HBeAg/HBV-DNA, clearance the reduction of HCC development, and better complication free survival have been documented. However, the effect on the prevention of cirrhosis and HCC development was controversial. Colombo and Iavarone[3] have recently reviewed the six meta-analysis published to date: The administration of IFN decreased the rate of HCC development in three meta-analyses, but it appeared to be unchanged in another three. The effect is more evident in Asian than in European studies possibly related to the lower incidence of HCC in European patients.[27-32] These controversial results can be explained by extrapolating HCC chemoprevention through the retrospective scrutiny of the studies that were originally designed to assess the antiviral efficacy of IFN therapy. The reanalysis of these studies was biased by the lack of a separate analysis of the treatment outcomes between sustained responders and non-responders, who represent a majority of all patients with CHB receiving IFN.[3] Therefore, proving a direct anti-HCC effect of IFN-based therapy with clinical trial data beyond what is currently available will be difficult if not impossible. However, IFN still has a role as an effective antiviral for HBV, with finite treatment duration and the potential for a durable effect. Theoretically, the promotion of immune control of viral replication by IFN may have a more solid rationale in terms of HCC prevention unless HBV DNA levels have a direct carcinogenic effect, in which case nucleos(t)ide analog therapy is likely more effective.[33]
The role of nucleos(t)ide analog therapies in preventing HCC has already been widely investigated. The first data date back to the first antiviral agent chronically administered to reduce viral load in patients with the chronic HBV-related liver disease. In 2004, a large RCT conducted in Asia in patients with chronic hepatitis B, who had histologically confirmed cirrhosis or advanced fibrosis, proved that lamivudine was effective in reducing rates of progression of disease and hepatic decompensation as well as the incidence of HCC.[22] Further studies confirmed these results. Papatheodoridis et al.[31] showed that long-term therapy with nucleos(t)ide analogs (NUCs) starting with lamivudine monotherapy did not eliminate the HCC risk in HBeAg-negative patients with CHB, especially those with pre-existing cirrhosis. A recent meta-analysis reported that lamivudine treatment significantly reduced the incidence of HCC when compared with no treatment. However, HCC still develops at a rate of 1.3 per 100 patient years in CHB patients receiving an oral antiviral agent.[34] Recent paper on a nationwide study in Greece indicates that the HCC risk remains increased in entecavir-treated HBeAg-negative CHB patients with cirrhosis, in particular, of older age, at least for the first 5 years. The HCC risk does not seem to be significantly reduced with entecavir when compared with antiviral therapy starting with lamivudine.[31] This finding highlights the need for continued HCC surveillance, particularly in CHB patients with inadequate viral suppression, older age, and cirrhosis.
Maintenance of virological remission is also important for the reduction of HCC risk. Among treated patients, HCC incidence is significantly higher among those who do not achieve virologic response than in those who do, with a significant treatment effect observed in the subgroup of cirrhotic patients.[35-38] This observation provides further evidence that older nucleos(t)ide analogs are not an optimal first-line treatment for chronic hepatitis B, as they are associated with very high rates of drug resistance during the long-term treatment, especially in cirrhotic patients. The nucleos(t)ide analogs entecavir and tenofovir, currently recommended as first-line options for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B, maintain long-term viral suppression in over 95% of patients and improve liver histology.[39-41] Treatment with entecavir and tenofovir can reduce the risk of HCC.[42-45] The treatment effect was significant in patients with cirrhosis,[36] whereas a significant HCC risk reduction in non-cirrhotic patients was noticeable only in some reports.[45,46]
Finally, there is an increasing evidence to suggest that antiviral therapy may reduce recurrence and also improve survival on post-hepatectomy outcome for hepatitis B-related HCC. A registry-based study from Taiwan showed that of 4,569 HBV-related HCC patients who received curative liver resections, patients treated with lamivudine, telbivudine, or entecavir had a significantly lower risk of HCC recurrence as compared to those who received no antiviral therapy (hazard ratio 0.67, 95% CI: 0.55-0.81, P < 0.001).[46] Another study by Chan et al.[47] demonstrated that antiviral therapy with lamivudine or entecavir improves the prognosis of HBV-related HCC: The 1-, 3-, and 5-year overall survival rates in the treatment group were 88.1%, 79.1%, and 71.2%, respectively; in the control group, 76.5%, 47.5%, and 43.5%, respectively (P = 0.005). Huang et al.[48] in a recent RCT showed that, in patients with hepatitis B-related HCC treated with adefovir, antiviral therapy leads to a reduction of late HCC recurrence and significantly improves overall survival after hepatic resection when compared with no treatment. IFN treatment as tertiary prevention of HBV-HCC-related recurrence remains controversial according to the findings in systematic reviews. Furthermore, the use of IFN is burdened by several side effects, including liver decompensation.
HCV
Increasing incidence of HCC in many countries, especially in the United States, is the result of an increase in the prevalence of HCV infection. HCV has been the dominant viral cause of HCC in North America, some Western countries, and Japan.[49] The incidence of HCC in HCV-infected patients amounts to 1-3% at 30 years after the infection.[50]
The molecular mechanism of a malignant transformation of hepatocyte induced by HCV infection is still unclear.[51] The pathogenesis of HCC is generally accepted as chronic inflammation and injury, which leads to fibrosis with eventual progression to cirrhosis and subsequent development of HCC.[52] In this setting, the prevention of HCC could be achieved by preventing cirrhosis and chronic liver inflammation and injury. The most effective approach to prevent HCC is averting HCV infection by vaccination. Unfortunately, despite researcher’s efforts, HCV vaccine is not yet available.[53] When infection is acquired the only way to preventing cancer and progression of liver disease depends on antiviral therapy.
Not all patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC) progress to cirrhosis and not all patients with HCV-related cirrhosis develop HCC, and the risk factors involved are still unknown. Furthermore, the progression from chronic hepatitis to cirrhosis occurs over several decades thus implying that for RCTs to assess efficacy of antiviral therapy to preventing HCC as a primary endpoint, need to enroll large sample size of patients and long-term follow-up. These limitations ensure that evidence to support the role of antiviral therapy to prevent cancer is based mainly on cohort follow-up, retrospective analysis, and meta-analysis.
In the 2000s, the standard therapy of HCV was Peg-IFN and ribavirin; many reports in this period showed a benefit of treatment, even though only a few of these were RCTs, and most of these studies were retrospective or cohort studies.[54-57] The protective effect of antiviral therapy was seen in most studies when patients achieved sustained virological response (SVR).[58,59] These data have recently been confirmed by Moon et al.[60] in a retrospective analysis including 494 CHC patients: Among the group of patients who did not achieve SVR, the incidence of HCC was significantly higher (5.5%) vs. the group of patients with SVR (1%, P = 0.005). In this study, the clinical factors associated with SVR were non-cirrhosis, age younger than 40 years, HCV genotype 2 or 3, low HCV RNA level, and low body weight, as reported in the previous studies. This suggests that the main chemoprotective effect is achieved for younger patients without cirrhosis and non-advanced liver disease.
The strength of these data are enforced by three meta-analyses suggesting that IFN therapy reduces the incidence of HCC in patients with CHC with an RR among treated patients of 0.43 (95% CI: 0.33-0.56, P < 0.00001).[58,61,62] Some studies report that the risk of HCC is reduced in these patients independent of fibrosis stage, while among cirrhotic patients that achieve SVR incidence of HCC is reduced by 20%.[63-65] In the group of patients with chronic hepatitis treated with IFN ± ribavirin, the incidence rate of HCC is markedly reduced, while in the group of cirrhotic patients data are not sufficient to support the efficacy of therapy to preventing cancer.[64-66] A meta-analysis in 2010 compared 20 studies with 4,700 patients overall; the risk in treatment group of HCC was reduced (RR: 0.43, 95% CI: 0.33-0.56).[58] Pinzoni et al.[67] showed that the risk of developing HCC after achieving SVR persisted in patients with HCV-related cirrhosis: among 598 patients with CHC who underwent a complete course of treatment with Peg-IFN and ribavirin, 221 (37%) patients obtained a SVR and throughout the 10-year post-treatment follow-up, 5.8% of these 221 patients developed HCC. Authors conclude that these patients should continue to undergo long-term surveillance for HCC, to ensure the early detection and treatment. Standard therapy can decrease the risk of HCC, but the patients with this benefit are those who achieve SVR and who have not yet progressed to cirrhosis or advanced fibrosis.
The risk of HCC is reduced but not eliminated also in patients with SVR: these patients are older, thus reflecting a long duration of infection or increased prevalence of cirrhosis and other risk factors for HCC in aged population.[68,69] In addition, non-viral carcinogenic factors such as diabetes, obesity, and alcohol abuse may explain the failure of HCC prevention in SVR patients.[70] Although this calls for a reassessment of current strategies of patient prioritization to antiviral therapies, which are mostly dictated by cost-utility criteria and, therefore, target the most in need patients with advanced liver disease, we became progressively aware that uncertainty regarding rates and the pattern of HCC chemoprevention by antiviral regimens is mainly the consequence of methodological flaws generated by the retrospective scrutiny of the literature. Because of its chemopreventive and antifibrotic effects, IFN monotherapy has been adopted as a long-term maintenance therapy to prevent HCC development.
Three large RCTs of long-term (3-4 years), low-dose Peg-IFN in patients with advanced fibrosis or cirrhosis showed no benefit of treatment on overall clinical outcomes or HCC.[71-73] A subsequent report of the HALT-C Trial focusing on HCC development with a slightly longer duration of follow-up also showed no difference in the incidence of HCC between the patients that were randomized to the maintenance IFN or no treatment.[74] The same results were observed even when the duration of follow-up in these studies was more prolonged.[75] Even after radical treatment, tumor recurrence of de novo second primary HCC was extremely frequent (70% after 5 years of surgical resection) and treatment options available, especially for advanced-stage liver disease, including liver transplantation were limited.[76] In a meta-analysis of ten studies including eight RCTs conducted in 1029 subjects: 528 HCC patients were treated with adjuvant treatment with IFN and 501 patients with placebo. When compared to the control group, the recurrence rates of HCC in IFN group was significantly lower [odds ratio (OR): 0.66, 95% CI: 0.50-0.86, P = 0.02], especially after TACE treatment according to subgroup analysis (OR: 0.73, 95% CI: 0.52-1.01, P = 0.06 for surgical resection; and OR: 0.54, 95% CI: 0.33-0.86, P = 0.01 for TACE).[77] In another meta-analysis of 10 controlled studies conducted in 655 patients undergoing local ablation or resection of a HCC, the 2-7 years pooled estimated risk reduction of HCC recurrence in SVR patients to IFN based regimens, was 74% and a 60% pooled risk reduction of mortality was observed in parallel. The study showed no correlation between SVR and risk of local recurrence (12.6% vs. 21.3%, P = 0.22), whereas the prevalence of recurrent tumors was greater in untreated patients and non-responders (79% and 61.3%) than in responders (35.6%). Finally, these findings support tertiary chemoprevention of hepatitis C-related HCC by IFN, even though applicability of IFN treatment is limited by its toxicity profile in most cirrhotic patients with a previous resection or tumor ablation.[78]
Discussion
The actual public health measures for preventing HCV/HBV transmission, including testing blood donors for HBV and HCV, needle exchange programs, lifestyles preventing alcohol abuse, uncontrolled sexual behaviors, and surveillance of high-risk individuals, could allow a significant decline of the disease in future generations.[79] Successful treatment of HBV and HCV could decrease the risk of HCC, but does not completely eliminate it.
Regarding HBV, the protective effect of IFN-α is likely to be limited to patients with cirrhosis who are sustained responders, which represented a relatively small proportion of all their patients. The effect of IFN-α in patient without cirrhosis is unclear. Treatment with nucleos(t)ide analogs appears more effective in lowering the risk of HCC development, probably through more powerful and long-standing suppression of viral replication, though the effect may be blunted with the occurrence of resistance.[80] Risk scoring systems for HCC in CHB should be useful to identify the high-risk patients and also to encourage all available prevention measures targeting adjustable HCC risk factors. However, these models need to be applied and validated in worldwide patients setting.
Furthermore, the current therapeutic options do not eradicate HBV infection and in spite of adequate treatment, the virus remains indefinitely latent in the host genome, representing a continuous threat of reactivation and an oncogenic HCC booster should be mandatory to start viral suppression in patients with active chronic liver disease, in particular with those who have already developed advanced hepatic disease, to avoid future complications, blackout the liver damage and hopefully reducing some degree of inflammation and fibrosis.[32]
In HCV setting, new direct antiviral therapies seem to be more effective to achieve a complete sustained virological response, and these new results will be compared with those of patients treated with IFN or Peg-IFN and ribavirin. Some patients who achieved an SVR with IFN-α based therapy also develop the complications of cirrhosis including HCC years after they have been cleaned from HCV.[81] Although nearly all patients will be cured of HCV by the new therapeutic approach, many of these cannot achieve a restorage of the underlying liver damage if yet established. Thus, it is essential that HCV should be identified and eradicated in all patients, despite the presence of symptoms and different severity grasses of liver disease.
Conclusion
The risk of HCC in patients with chronic HBV or chronic HCV infection is not avoided if the treatment is started after cirrhosis is established. These data indicate that treatment could be useful if administrated earlier in the course of CHB or CHC.
Financial support and sponsorship
Nil.
Conflicts of interest
There are no conflicts of interest.
REFERENCES
2. Mutimer DJ, Lok A. Management of HBV- and HCV-induced end-stage liver disease. Gut 2012;61:i59-67.
3. Colombo M, Iavarone M. Role of antiviral treatment for HCC prevention. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2014;28:771-81.
4. Aghemo A, Lampertico P, Colombo M. Assessing long-term treatment efficacy in chronic hepatitis B and C: between evidence and common sense. J Hepatol 2012;57:1326-35.
5. Chang MH. Prevention of hepatitis B virus infection and liver cancer. Recent Results Cancer Res 2014;193:75-95.
6. Parkin DM. The global health burden of infection-associated cancers in the year 2002. Int J Cancer 2006;118:3030-44.
7. Su CH, Lin Y, Cai L. Genetic factors, viral infection, other factors and liver cancer: an update on current progress. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2013;14:4953-60.
8. Liu CJ, Chen BF, Chen PJ, Lai MY, Huang WL, Kao JH, Chen DS. Role of hepatitis B virus precore/core promoter mutations and serum viral load on noncirrhotic hepatocellular carcinoma: a case-control study. J Infect Dis 2006;194:594-9.
9. Orito E, Mizokami M. Hepatitis B virus genotypes and hepatocellular carcinoma in Japan. Intervirology 2003;46:408-12.
10. Chan HL, Wong ML, Hui AY, Hung LC, Chan FK, Sung JJ. Hepatitis B virus genotype C takes a more aggressive disease course than hepatitis B virus genotype B in hepatitis B e antigen-positive patients. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:1277-9.
11. Kao JH, Chen PJ, Chen DS. Recent advances in the research of hepatitis B virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma: epidemiologic and molecular biological aspects. Adv Cancer Res 2010;108:21-72.
12. Zhang KY, Imazeki F, Fukai K, Arai M, Kanda T, Mikata R, Yokosuka O. Analysis of the complete hepatitis B virus genome in patients with genotype C chronic hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer Sci 2007;98:1921-9.
13. Zheng JX, Zeng Z, Zheng YY, Yin SJ, Zhang DY, Yu YY, Wang F. Role of hepatitis B virus base core and precore/core promoter mutations on hepatocellular carcinoma in untreated older genotype patients. J Viral Hepat 2011;18:e423-31.
14. Toh ST, Jin Y, Liu L, Wang J, Babrzadeh F, Gharizadeh B, Ronaghi M, Toh HC, Chow PK, Chung AY, Ooi LL, Lee CG. Deep sequencing of the hepatitis B virus in hepatocellular carcinoma patients reveals enriched integration events, structural alterations and sequence variations. Carcinogenesis 2013;34:787-98.
15. Bonilla Guerrero R, Roberts LR. The role of hepatitis B virus integrations in the pathogenesis of human hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2005;42:760-77.
17. Fattovich G, Bortolotti F, Donato F. Natural history of chronic hepatitis B: special emphasis on disease progression and prognostic factors. J Hepatol 2008;48:335-52.
18. Chen G, Lin W, Shen F, Iloeje UH, London WT, Evans AA. Past HBV viral load as predictor of mortality and morbidity from HCC and chronic liver disease in a prospective study. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101:1797-803.
19. Chen CJ, Yang HI, Iloeje UH; REVEAL-HBV Study Group. Hepatitis B virus DNA levels and outcomes in chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 2009;49:S72-84.
20. Wong GL, Wong VW, Choi PC, Chan AW, Chim AM, Yiu KK, Chan HY, Chan FK, Sung JJ, Chan HL. Metabolic syndrome increases the risk of liver cirrhosis in chronic hepatitis B. Gut 2009;58:111-7.
21. Chen HP, Shieh JJ, Chang CC, Chen TT, Lin JT, Wu MS, Lin JH, Wu CY. Metformin decreases hepatocellular carcinoma risk in a dose-dependent manner: population-based and in vitro studies. Gut 2013;62:606-15.
22. Liaw YF, Sung JJ, Chow WC, Farrell G, Lee CZ, Yuen H, Tanwandee T, Tao QM, Shue K, Keene ON, Dixon JS, Gray DF, Sabbat J; Cirrhosis Asian Lamivudine Multicentre Study Group. Lamivudine for patients with chronic hepatitis B and advanced liver disease. N Engl J Med 2004;351:1521-31.
23. Wong VW, Chan SL, Mo F, Chan TC, Loong HH, Wong GL, Lui YY, Chan AT, Sung JJ, Yeo W, Chan HL, Mok TS. Clinical scoring system to predict hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic hepatitis B carriers. J Clin Oncol 2010;28:1660-5.
24. Yuen MF, Tanaka Y, Fong DY, Fung J, Wong DK, Yuen JC, But DY, Chan AO, Wong BC, Mizokami M, Lai CL. Independent risk factors and predictive score for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic hepatitis B. J Hepatol 2009;50:80-8.
25. Yang HI, Yuen MF, Chan HL, Han KH, Chen PJ, Kim DY, Ahn SH, Chen CJ, Wong VW, Seto WK; REACH-B Working Group. Risk estimation for hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic hepatitis B (REACH-B): development and validation of a predictive score. Lancet Oncol 2011;12:568-74.
26. Papatheodoridis GV, Dalekos GN, Yurdaydin C, Buti M, Goulis J, Arends P, Sypsa V, Manolakopoulos S, Mangia G, Gatselis N, Keskın O, Savvidou S, Hansen BE, Papaioannou C, Galanis K, Idilman R, Colombo M, Esteban R, Janssen HL, Lampertico P. Risk and risk factors of hepatocellular carcinoma in Caucasian chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients with or without cirrhosis treated with entecavir (ETV) or tenofovir (TDF). Hepatology 2013;58:302A.
27. Papatheodoridis GV, Manesis E, Hadziyannis SJ. The long-term outcome of interferon-alpha treated and untreated patients with HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B. J Hepatol 2001;34:306-13.
28. Lin SM, Yu ML, Lee CM, Chien RN, Sheen IS, Chu CM, Liaw YF. Interferon therapy in HBeAg positive chronic hepatitis reduces progression to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2007;46:45-52.
29. Yuen MF, Hui CK, Cheng CC, Wu CH, Lai YP, Lai CL. Long-term follow-up of interferon alfa treatment in Chinese patients with chronic hepatitis B infection: the effect on hepatitis B e antigen seroconversion and the development of cirrhosis-related complications. Hepatology 2001;34:139-45.
30. Sung JJ, Tsoi KK, Wong VW, Li KC, Chan HL. Meta-analysis: treatment of hepatitis B infection reduces risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008;28:1067-77.
31. Papatheodoridis GV, Manolakopoulos S, Touloumi G, Vourli G, Raptopoulou-Gigi M, Vafi adis-Zoumbouli I, Vasiliadis T, Mimidis K, Gogos C, Ketikoglou I, Manesis EK, HEPNET. Greece Cohort Study Group. Virological suppression does not prevent the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B patients with cirrhosis receiving oral antiviral (s) starting with lamivudine monotherapy: results of the nationwide HEPNET. Greece Cohort Study. Gut 2011;60:1109-16.
32. Russo FP, Scribano L, Rodrìguez-Castro K, Gottardo G, Vanin V, Farinati F. Impact of therapy on long-term outcome of chronic hepatitis B. World J Hepatol 2015;18:1097-104.
33. Abu-Amara M, Feld JJ. Does antiviral therapy for chronic hepatitis B reduce the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma? Semin Liver Dis 2013;33:157-66.
34. Singal AK, Salameh H, Kuo YF, Fontana RJ. Meta-analysis: the impact of oral anti-viral agents on the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic hepatitis B. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2013;38:98-106.
35. Yang SC, Lee CM, Hu TH, Wang JH, Lu SN, Hung CH, Changchien CS, Chen CH. Virological response to entecavir reduces the risk of liver disease progression in nucleos(t)ide analogue-experienced HBV-infected patients with prior resistant mutants. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013;68:2154-63.
36. Wong GL, Chan HL, Mak CH, Lee SK, Ip ZM, Lam AT, Iu HW, Leung JM, Lai JW, Lo AO, Chan HY, Wong VW. Entecavir treatment reduces hepatic events and deaths in chronic hepatitis B patients with liver cirrhosis. Hepatology 2013;58:1537-47.
37. Kim SS, Ahn SJ, Park SY, Song GW, Cheong JY, Cho SW. Virological response to entecavir is associated with low probability of developing hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic hepatitis B patients with cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2013;58:S265.
38. Cho JY, Paik YH, Sohn W, Cho HC, Gwak GY, Choi MS, Lee JH, Koh KC, Paik SW, Yoo BC. Patients with chronic hepatitis B treated with oral antiviral therapy retain a higher risk for HCC compared with patients with inactive stage disease. Gut 2014;63:1943-50.
39. European Association for the Study of the Liver. EASL clinical practice guidelines: management of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Hepatol 2012;57:167-85.
40. Liaw YF, Kao JH, Piratvisuth T, Chan HL, Chien RN, Liu CJ, Gane E, Locarnini S, Lim SG, Han KH, Amarapurkar D, Cooksley G, Jafri W, Mohamed R, Hou JL, Chuang WL, Lesmana LA, Sollano JD, Suh DJ, Omata M. Asian-pacfic consensus statement on the management of chronic hepatitis B: a 2012 update. Hepatol Int 2012;6:531-61.
42. Hosaka T, Suzuki F, Kobayashi M, Seko Y, Kawamura Y, Sezaki H, Akuta N, Suzuki Y, Saitoh S, Arase Y, Ikeda K, Kobayashi M, Kumada H. Long-term entecavir treatment reduces hepatocellular carcinoma incidence in patients with hepatitis B virus infection. Hepatology 2013;58:98-107.
43. Su TH, Kao JH, Liu CJ. Molecular mechanism and treatment of viral hepatitis-related liver fibrosis. Int J Mol Sci 2014;15:10578-604.
44. Kumada T, Toyoda H, Tada T, Kiriyama S, Tanikawa M, Hisanaga Y, Kanamori A, Niinomi T, Yasuda S, Andou Y, Yamamoto K, Tanaka J. Effect of nucleos(t)ide analogue therapy on hepatocarcinogenesis in chronic hepatitis B patients: a propensity score analysis. J Hepatol 2013;58:427-33.
45. Papatheodoridis GV, Chan HL, Hansen BE, Janssen HL, Lampertico P. Risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic hepatitis B: assessment and modification with current antiviral therapy. J Hepatol 2015;62:956-67.
46. Wu CY, Lin JT, Ho HJ, Su CW, Lee TY, Wang SY Wu C, Wu JC. Association of nucleos(t)ide analogue therapy with reduced risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with chronic hepatitis B: a nationwide cohort study. Gastroenterology 2014;147:143-51.
47. Chan AC, Chok KS, Yuen WK, Chan SC, Poon RT, Lo CM, Fan ST. Impact of antiviral therapy on the survival of patients after major hepatectomy for hepatitis B virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma. Arch Surg 2011;146:675-81.
48. Huang G, Lau WY, Wang ZG, Pan ZY, Yuan SX, Shen F, Zhou WP, Wu MC. Antiviral therapy improves postoperative survival in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Surg 2015;261:56-66.
49. Nordenstedt H, White DL, El-Serag HB. The changing pattern of epidemiology in hepatocellular carcinoma. Dig Liver Dis 2010;42:S206-14.
50. Goodgame B, Shaheen NJ, El-Serag HB. The risk of end stage liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma among persons infected with hepatitis C virus: publication bias? Am J Gastroenterol 2003;98:2535-42.
51. Hoshida Y, Fuchs BC, Bardeesy N, Baumert TF, Chung RT. Pathogenesis and prevention of hepatitis C virus-induced hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2014;61:S79-90.
52. Bruix J, Sherman M, Practice Guidelines Committee, American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Management of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology 2005;42:1208-36.
53. Chang MH, Shau WY, Chen CJ, Wu TC, Kong MS, Liang DC, Hsu HM, Chen HL, Hsu HY, Chen DS; Taiwan Childhood Hepatoma Study Group. Hepatitis B vaccination and hepatocellular carcinoma rates in boys and girls. JAMA 2000;284:3040-2.
54. Manns MP, McHutchison JG, Gordon SC, Rustgi VK, Shiffman M, Reindollar R, Goodman ZD, Koury K, Ling M, Albrecht JK. Peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin compared with interferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin for initial treatment of chronic hepatitis C: a randomized trial. Lancet 2001;358:958-65.
55. Fried MW, Shiffman ML, Reddy KR, Smith C, Marinos G, Goncales FL Jr, Haussinger D, Diago M, Carosi G, Dhumeaux D, Craxi A, Lin A, Hoffman J, Yu J. Peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med 2002;347:975-82.
56. Hadziyannis SJ, Sette H Jr, Morgan TR, Balan V, Diago M, Marcellin P, Ramadori G, Bodenheimer H Jr, Bernstein D, Rizzetto M, Zeuzem S, Pockros PJ, Lin A, Ackrill AM; PEGASYS International Study Group. Peginterferon-alpha 2a and ribavirin combination therapy in chronic hepatitis C: a randomized study of treatment duration and ribavirin dose. Ann Intern Med 2004;140:346-55.
57. Nishiguchi S, Kuroki T, Nakatani S, Morimoto H, Takeda T, Nakajima S, Shiomi S, Seki S, Kobayashi K, Otani S. Randomised trial of effects of interferon-alpha on incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic active hepatitis C with cirrhosis. Lancet 1995;346:1051-5.
58. Singal AK, Singh A, Jaganmohan S, Guturu P, Mummadi R, Kuo YF, Sood GK. Antiviral therapy reduces risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010;8:192-9.
59. Yamashita N, Ohho A, Yamasaki A, Kurokawa M, Kotoh K, Kajiwara E. Hepatocarcinogenesis in chronic hepatitis C patients achieving a sustained virological response to interferon: significance of lifelong periodic cancer screening for improving outcomes. J Gastroenterol 2014;49:1504-13.
60. Moon C, Jung KS, Kim do Y, Baatarkhuu O, Park JY, Kim BK, Kim SU, Ahn SH, Han KH. Lower incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma and cirrhosis in hepatitis C patients with sustained virological response by pegylated interferon and ribavirin. Dig Dis Sci 2015;60:573-81.
61. Papatheodoridis GV, Papadimitropoulos VC, Hadziyannis SJ. Effect of interferon therapy on the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis: a meta-analysis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2001;15:689-98.
63. Morgan RL, Baack B, Smith BD, Yartel A, Pitasi M, Falck-Ytter Y. Eradication of hepatitis C virus infection and the development of hepatocellular carcinoma: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Ann Intern Med 2013;158:329-37.
64. Morgan TR, Ghany MG, Kim HY, Snow KK, Shiffman ML, De Santo JL, Lee WM, Di Bisceglie AM, Bonkovsky HL, Dienstag JL, Morishima C, Lindsay KL, Lok AS; HALT-C Trial Group. Outcome of sustained virological responders with histologically advanced chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 2010;52:833-44.
65. Thévenot T, Regimbeau C, Ratziu V, Leroy V, Opolon P, Poynard T. Metaanalysis of interferon randomized trials in the treatment of viral hepatitis C in naive patients: 1999 update. J Viral Hepat 2001;8:48-62.
66. Aleman S, Rahbin N, Weiland O, Davidsdottir L, Hedenstierna M, Rose N, Verbaan H, Stål P, Carlsson T, Norrgren H, Ekbom A, Granath F, Hultcrantz R. A risk for hepatocellular carcinoma persists long-term after sustained virologic response in patients with hepatitis C-associated liver cirrhosis. Clin Infect Dis 2013;57:230-6.
67. Pinzoni MR, Zanghì AM, Rapisarda L, D'Agata V, Benanti F, Spartà D, Nunnari G, Capopardo B. Cirrhotic patients are still at risk of developing hepatocellular carcinoma despite interferon-induced sustained virological response. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2014;18:11-5.
68. Asahina Y, Tsuchiya K, Tamaki N, Hirayama I, Tanaka T, Sato M, Yasui Y, Hosokawa T, Ueda K, Kuzuya T, Nakanishi H, Itakura J, Takahashi Y, Kurosaki M, Enomoto N, Izumi N. Effect of aging on risk for hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology 2010;52:518-27.
69. van der Meer AJ, Veldt BJ, Feld JJ, Wedemeyer H, Dufour JF, Lammert F, Duarte-Rojo A, Heathcote EJ, Manns MP, Kuske L, Zeuzem S, Hofmann WP, de Knegt RJ, Hansen BE, Janssen HL. Association between sustained virological response and all-cause mortality among patients with chronic hepatitis C and advanced hepatic fibrosis. JAMA 2012;308:2584-93.
70. Arase Y, Kobayashi M, Suzuki F, Suzuki Y, Kawamura Y, Akuta N, Kobayashi M, Sezaki H, Saito S, Hosaka T, Ikeda K, Kumada H, Kobayashi T. Effect of type 2 diabetes on risk for malignancies includes hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 2013;57:964-73.
71. Di Bisceglie AM, Shiffman ML, Everson GT, Lindsay KL, Everhart JE, Wright EC, Lee WM, Lok AS, Bonkovsky HL, Morgan TR, Ghany MG, Morishima C, Snow KK, Dienstag JL; HALT-C Trial Investigators. Prolonged therapy of advanced chronic hepatitis C with low-dose peginterferon. N Engl J Med 2008;359:2429-41.
72. Afdhal NH, Levine R, Brown RS, Freilich B, OíBrien M, Brass C. Colchichine versus peg-interferon alfa-2b long term therapy: results of the 4 year copilot trial. J Hepatol 2008;48:S4.
73. Poynard T, Colombo M, Bruix J, Schiff E, Terg R, Flamm S, Moreno-Otero R, Carrilho F, Schmidt W, Berg T, McGarrity T, Heathcote EJ, Gonáales F, Diago M, Craxi A, Silva M, Bedossa P, Mukhopadhyay P, Griffel L, Burroughs M, Brass C, Albrecht J; Epic Study Group. Peginterferon alfa-2b and ribavirin: effective in patients with hepatitis C who failed interferon alfa/ribavirin therapy. Gastroenterology 2009;136:1618-28.e2.
74. Lok AS, Seeff LB, Morgan TR, Di Bisceglie AM, Sterling RK, Curto TM, Everson GT, Lindsay KL, Lee WM, Bonkovsky HL, Dienstag JL, Ghany MG, Morishima C, Goodman ZD; HALT-C Trial Group. Incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma and associated risk factors in hepatitis C-related advanced liver disease. Gastroenterology 2009;136:138-48.
75. Lok AS, Everhart JE, Wright EC, Morgan TR, Di Bisceglie AM, Kim H. Maintenance peginterferon (pegIFN) therapy to prevent hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in patients (pts) with advanced chronic hepatitis C (CHC): extended follow-up results from the HALT-C Trial. AASLD Abstract; 2010.
76. Hoshida Y, Fuchs BC, Tanabe KK. Prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma: potential targets, experimental models, and clinical challenges. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 2012;12:1129-59.
77. Jiang S, Liu Y, Wang L, Duan C, Liu M. A meta-analysis and systematic review: adjuvant interferon therapy for patients with viral hepatitis related hepatocellular carcinoma. World J Surg Oncol 2013;11:240.
78. Singal AK, Freeman DH Jr, Anand BS. Meta-analysis: interferon improves outcomes following ablation or resection of hepatocellular carcinoma. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2010;32:851-8.
79. Singal A, Volk ML, Waljee A, Salgi R, Higins P, Rogers MA, Marrero JA. Meta-analysis: surveillance with ultrasound for early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with cirrhosis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2009;30:37-47.
80. Lai CL, Yuen MF. Prevention of hepatitis B virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma with antiviral therapy. Hepatology 2013;57:399-408.
Cite This Article
Export citation file: BibTeX | RIS
OAE Style
Scribano L, Vanin V, Gottardo G, Sacchi D, Russo FP. Role of antiviral therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis B or C virus in preventing the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatoma Res 2016;2:10-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2394-5079.168961
AMA Style
Scribano L, Vanin V, Gottardo G, Sacchi D, Russo FP. Role of antiviral therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis B or C virus in preventing the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatoma Research. 2016; 2: 10-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2394-5079.168961
Chicago/Turabian Style
Scribano, Laura, Veronica Vanin, Giorgia Gottardo, Diana Sacchi, Francesco Paolo Russo. 2016. "Role of antiviral therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis B or C virus in preventing the development of hepatocellular carcinoma" Hepatoma Research. 2: 10-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2394-5079.168961
ACS Style
Scribano, L.; Vanin V.; Gottardo G.; Sacchi D.; Russo FP. Role of antiviral therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis B or C virus in preventing the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatoma. Res. 2016, 2, 10-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2394-5079.168961
About This Article
Copyright
Data & Comments
Data
0
Cite This Article 5 clicks
Like This Article 0
likes
Comments
Comments must be written in English. Spam, offensive content, impersonation, and private information will not be permitted. If any comment is reported and identified as inappropriate content by OAE staff, the comment will be removed without notice. If you have any queries or need any help, please contact us at support@oaepublish.com.